Architecture/Design Arab States

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<div>Wardenclyffe Tower </div><img src="https://dashboard.atimeline.com/uploads/thumbnail_Wardenclyffe_Tower_cea7f1fd33.jpeg"/>

Wardenclyffe Tower (1901–1917), also known as the Tesla Tower, was an early experimental wireless transmission station designed and built by Nikola Tesla on Long Island in 1901–1902, located in the village of Shoreham, New York. Tesla intended to transmit messages, telephony and even facsimile images across the Atlantic to England and to ships at sea based on his theories of using the Earth to conduct the signals. His decision to scale up the facility and implement his ideas of wireless power transmission to better compete with Guglielmo Marconi's radio-based telegraph system was met with refusal to fund the changes by the project's primary backer, financier J. P. Morgan. Additional investment could not be found, and the project was abandoned in 1906, never to become operational.

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Wardenclyffe Tower 

<div>The Souls of Black Folk </div><img src="https://dashboard.atimeline.com/uploads/thumbnail_Souls_of_Black_Folk_b6f55bb1de.jpg"/>

The Souls of Black Folk: Essays and Sketches is a 1903 work of American literature by W. E. B. Du Bois. It is a seminal work in the history of sociology and a cornerstone of African-American literature.

The book contains several essays on race, some of which had been published earlier in The Atlantic Monthly. To develop this work, Du Bois drew from his own experiences as an African American in American society. Outside of its notable relevance in African-American history, The Souls of Black Folk also holds an important place in social science as one of the early works in the field of sociology.

In The Souls of Black Folk, Du Bois used the term "double consciousness", perhaps taken from Ralph Waldo Emerson ("The Transcendentalist" and "Fate"), applying it to the idea that black people must have two fields of vision at all times. They must be conscious of how they view themselves, as well as being conscious of how the world views them.
(Wikipedia 1 March 2022)

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The Souls of Black Folk 

The separation of Panama from Colombia was formalized on 3 November 1903, with the establishment of the Republic of Panama. From the Independence of Panama from Spain in 1821, Panama had simultaneously declared independence from Spain and joined itself to the confederation of Gran Colombia through the Independence Act of Panama. Panama was always tenuously connected to the rest of the country to the south, owing to its remoteness from the government in Bogotá and lack of a practical overland connection to the rest of Gran Colombia. In 1840–41, a short-lived independent republic was established under Tomás de Herrera. After rejoining Colombia following a 13-month independence, it remained a province which saw frequent rebellious flare-ups, notably the Panama crisis of 1885, which saw the intervention of the United States Navy, and a reaction by the Chilean Navy.

During the construction of the Panama canal, the initial attempts by France to construct a sea-level canal across the isthmus were secured through treaty with Colombia; however French cost overruns and corruption in the Panama scandals led to abandonment of the Canal for a decade. During the intervening years, local separatists used the political instability of the Thousand Days' War to agitate for political separation from Colombia and establishment of an independent republic. When the United States sought to take over the canal project, the government of Colombia proved difficult to work with, and with the cooperation of French financier Philippe-Jean Bunau-Varilla, Panama simultaneously declared independence from Colombia and negotiated a treaty granting the U.S. the right to construct the canal.

The United States was the first country to recognize the independence of the nascent republic, sending the U.S. Navy to prevent Colombia from retaking the territory during the first days of the new Republic. In exchange for its role in defending the Republic, and for constructing the canal, the U.S. was granted a perpetual lease on the land around the canal, known as the Panama Canal Zone, which was later returned to Panama under the terms of the Torrijos–Carter Treaties.

After the United States, many other nations quickly recognized the independent republic, though Colombia refused to do so until 1909, after receiving a $500,000 concession from Panama to cover its share of the debts it owed at independence. (Wikipedia 1 March 2022)

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Separation of Panama from Colombia

<div>Museum of Arab Art</div><img src="https://dashboard.atimeline.com/uploads/thumbnail_1903_Museum_of_Arab_Art_Cairo_Bildarchiv_Foto_Marburg_9b875b5388.jpeg"/>

Museum of Islamic Art, formerly called (1881–1952) Museum of Arab Art, museum in Cairo, one of the largest in the world dedicated to Islamic art and artifacts. The museum was founded in 1881, and its collection spans from the 7th-century Umayyad dynasty to the 19th-century Ottoman Empire. In 1903 the museum moved to its current building.

The Egyptian khedive Tawfīq gave the decree that led to the establishment of the Museum of Arab Art in 1881. The decree authorized a group of European and Egyptian art preservationists, led by the Hungarian architect and conservator Max Herz, to gather detached fragments from historic structures in Cairo that had fallen into disrepair. These items were the beginnings of the modern museum’s collection and were housed in the mosque of the Fāṭimid caliph al-Ḥākim. In 1903 the collection moved to a new museum building designed by Alfonso Manelesco in a neo-Mamlūk style. In 1952 the museum changed its name to the Museum of Islamic Art.

Since then the museum acquired a substantial collection of artifacts from outside Egypt, representing most of the major periods of Islamic history and most regions of the Islamic world. The museum’s collection includes a number of notable artifacts, such as the oldest Islamic gold dinar ever found, dating to the 7th century CE; several rare Qurʾāns; a restored Mamlūk mosaic fountain; and an engraved ewer, or jug, taken from a grave thought to be that of the last Umayyad caliph, Marwān II.

By 2003 the Museum of Islamic Art’s collection had swelled to more than 100,000 objects, making the exhibitions cramped and difficult for visitors to navigate. The Egyptian government elected to renovate and reorganize the museum, a seven-year project that was carried out in consultation with the Islamic art department of the Louvre and the Aga Khan Trust for Culture. The redesigned museum, which opened to visitors in 2010, displays only a small selection from the entire collection, with one wing devoted to Egyptian exhibits and another devoted to art from the rest of the Islamic world.

In 2014 a car bomb targeting the nearby police headquarters seriously damaged the museum’s facade as well as 179 pieces of art inside. After years of reconstruction and restoration, most of the affected art was salvaged, and the museum reopened in 2017.

(Britannica.com 1 March 2022)

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Museum of Arab Art

Otto Wagner’s Postal Savings Bank ranks among the key works of European Modernity and Viennese art around 1900. The building realized from 1904 to 1912 is Wagner’s (1841-1918) most modern and important work. His rule that “what is impractical can never be beautiful” was the result of decades of architectural analyses and superior skills. The functionality of each constructive detail and interior decoration feature and the usability of each piece of furniture designed by Wagner guaranteed intelligent, convincing, and highly aesthetical solutions.

The façade’s aluminum-covered metal bolts, for example, are both a technical requirement and a programmatic exhibition of Modernity, but also convey an important symbolic message: the iron-clad treasure chest stands as an archetype of safekeeping money.

Wagner’s designs for the entire decoration and furnishings of the building reveal a similar programmatic-symbolic understanding: floor coverings, wall paneling, carpets and rugs, radiators, lamps, clocks, door handles, standing desks, counters, stools, seats, chairs, desks, wardrobes, wall racks, and safes – everything is based on this principle of design. The feet of the seating furniture in the Postal Savings Bank were covered with sleeves, the armrests with bands, thus not only protecting the furniture against wear, but also emphasizing its value and character as art. The hot air blowers in the Main Banking Hall transcend their mere utilitarian function and, with their practical value being aestheticized, turn into objects of art in their own right.

The uncompromising modern, practical, and unsentimental attitude, which the gesamtkunstwerk of the Postal Savings Bank was to articulate in its architecture and interiors, has lost nothing of its validity to this day: “Every modern creation has to visualize our own better, democratic, self-confident, our keenly thinking nature” (Otto Wagner, 1913).

(www.ottowagner.com/austrian-postal-savings-bank/ 1 March 2022)

 The Cash Desk Hall, the Postsparkasse in Vienna, Otto Wagner, c. 1910. Imagno:Getty Images.webp

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Postal Savings Bank

<div>Architectural Arts magazine</div><img src="https://dashboard.atimeline.com/uploads/thumbnail_1950_Architectural_Arts_Magazine_1873719f8c.JPG"/>

Egyptian architect Mohamed Hammad establishes Architectural Arts Magazine, building on his experience as a co-editor for Al-Emara, the first known Arabic language journal dedicated to contemporary architecture.

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Architectural Arts magazine

<div>Habitat Magazine</div><img src="https://dashboard.atimeline.com/uploads/thumbnail_1950_Habitat_magazine_4801341ab9.jpeg"/>

In 1950, Habitat, a “review of architecture and art in Brazil”, was the tool of an ambitious hands-on cultural project run by the architect Lina Bo (1914-1992) and Pietro Maria Bardi, her husband and the magazine’s joint founder.

Lina Bo Bardi and the magazine Habitat - AWARE Artistes femmes / women artists
Involving all the various disciplines around architecture—from art to design, from dance to fashion, and from photography to craftsmanship—Habitat’s goal was to define a modern environment, in the broadest sense of the term, as “dignity, morality of life and, consequently, spirituality and culture”, as was set forth in its first editorial1. Like a perfect echo of the social and cultural changes then under way in São Paulo from the 1940s on, when that booming industrial metropolis was turned into the country’s economic and cultural capital, the goals of that multidisciplinary magazine also incarnated the thoroughly European enthusiasm of its founders: a pair of Italian intellectuals who had survived the war and were new arrivals in Brazil, a young country and one “condemned to be modern”, to use Mario Pedrosa’s apt words.2 Once there they tried to apply avant-garde ideas that had matured in Europe before the war, using tools which respectively suited them best. Pietro Maria Bardi, a critic and gallery owner,3 thus became the director of the Art Museum in São Paulo (MASP), while for Lina Bo Bardi, who has already worked as an illustrator for the magazine Lo Stile (run by Gio Ponti), and had been the editor of Domus and Quaderni di Domus, an architectural magazine fitted the bill to perfection. Although founded together with her husband, and closely bound up with the cultural politics of the MASP, Habitat was thus eminently indebted to Lina Bo Bardi’s way of thinking, and her intellectual approach, and she actively took charge of the publication’s management for the first fifteen issues, from October 1950 to December 1953.

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Habitat Magazine

<div>New Gourna (experimental village)</div><img src="https://dashboard.atimeline.com/uploads/thumbnail_1945_New_Gourna_edb3bdafae.jpeg"/>

Designed by a pioneer of sustainable architecture, Hassan Fathy, the village of New Gourna in Luxor, or ancient Thebes, was commissioned by the Egyptian Department of Antiquities in 1945. The goal was to use local materials and techniques to relocate Old Gourna, a community of amateur archeologists that had sprung up near the ancient sites, and in doing so, curtail damage and looting at nearby Pharaonic sites as well as facilitate tourism development. Only part of the goal was realized. Political and financial complications as well as residents’ opposition to relocation prevented completion. However, New Gourna remains a dynamic living settlement, with housing and public facilities, though nearly 40 percent of the original buildings have been lost.

(wmf.org 1 March 2022)

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New Gourna (experimental village)

<div>Ornament and Crime</div><img src="https://dashboard.atimeline.com/uploads/thumbnail_1908_loos_ornament_and_crime_378d8887ca.jpeg"/>

Adolf Loos first gave the lecture in 1910 at the Akademischer Verband für Literatur und Musik in Vienna. The essay was then published in 1913 in Les Cahiers d’aujourd’hui in French as Ornement et Crime. In 1929 was the essay published in German in the Frankfurter Zeitung, as Ornament und Verbrechen.

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Ornament and Crime

<div>Teatro Juárez</div><img src="https://dashboard.atimeline.com/uploads/thumbnail_49508883711_057ba650e6_k_f391400af0.jpg"/>

Besides of being a great example of the Beaux-Arts architecture, it reflects the economic growth that several Latin American countries, but specially those which inked their economies to those of Europe and the United States and became huge exporters of commodities, experimented during the so-called ’Gilded Age’.

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Teatro Juárez

<div>Establishment of Garden City</div><img src="https://dashboard.atimeline.com/uploads/thumbnail_Map_of_Garden_City_Cairo_from_1915_fd38141c70.jpeg"/>

Garden City is a clearly defined residential area delineated by Qasr al-Aini Street to the east, Tahrir Square to the north, the Nile river to the west, and Qasr al-Aini hospital to the south. At the turn of the twentieth century the site of Garden City was occupied by agricultural fields and palaces. In 1905 the Nile Land and Agricultural Company acquired the area for real-estate development, and engineer Jose Lamba provided the sinuous street plan to parcel the site into plots for sale. 

Art Nouveau lines influenced the conception of the area's circular street pattern. Despite its name, the project was far removed from Ebenezer Howard's garden city movement initiated in 1898. Howard's vision was to improve the quality of life for workers in increasingly crowded industrial cities. Cairo's Garden City, however, was intended as a wealthy enclave with lush tree-lined streets and an urban pattern that separates it from its surrounds without the erection of physical barriers. The area's initial structures were mansions and palaces, such as the massive palace of Prime Minister Adli Yakan Pasha, designed by Antonio Lasciac and demolished in 2001 to make room for the towering Four Seasons Hotel. Demolitions have hit Garden City for decades, due to its appealing location and high real-estate value. Key residents in the area include the British and American embassies and the College de la Mere de Dieu boarding school, in its current building since 1921. In the 1920s large Art Deco apartments were built on the edge of the district, lining Qasr al-Aini Street and along the Nile, and the rest of the area had already been filled with villas and large private residences. Starting in the 1930s, large apartment buildings crept toward the center of Garden City, transforming its initial character. This continued in the 1940s and 1950s with Modernist apartment blocks built for elite residents, including Cairo's tallest structure when it was completed, the Sabet Sabet building (1958). Nationalization policies in the 1960s strongly impacted the ownership of the area, leading to several government offices and banking institutions inhabiting Garden City's residential properties or demolishing them to build suitable office buildings in their place.

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Establishment of Garden City

<div>Establishment of Maadi</div><img src="https://dashboard.atimeline.com/uploads/thumbnail_Maadi_train_1945_47215537cc.jpg"/>

The construction of the rail link between Cairo and Helwan in 1904 led Elie and Victor Mosseri to purchase land near the railway south in this area south of Cairo, which would become Maadi, named after a nearby village. The Delta Land and Investment Company was created to develop the land speculation project, and retired Canadian officer Alexander James Adams produced the plan. Since Maadi was envisioned as a leafy garden city, the company enforced strict zoning regulations and building codes. The area is designed with a grid of streets overlaid with diagonal streets connecting traffic circles. By 1911 there were twenty-nine occupied houses in the area. During the First and Second world wars Maadi hosted military bases for British and Commonwealth troops, resulting in the area becoming populated with expatriates, who built houses in a variety of styles often linked to their home country.

Nationalization policies transformed the area's demographics and led to the establishment of the Maadi Development Company, as the suburb expanded eastward and westward. Demolitions of houses began in the 1970s, making room for some higher-density apartment blocks and latter some of Cairo's tallest residential towers were built along the Nile near Maadi.

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Establishment of Maadi

<div>Theodor Herzl dies</div><img src="https://dashboard.atimeline.com/uploads/thumbnail_Theodor_Herzl_1904_a995bf17d0.jpeg"/>

Born in 1860 in Budapest, Hungary, Theodor Herzl was an Austro-Hungarian Jewish journalist, playwright, political activist, and writer who was the father of modern political Zionism. Herzl formed the Zionist Organization and promoted Jewish immigration to Palestine in an effort to form a Jewish state.

Although he died before Israel's establishment, he is known in Hebrew as חוֹזֵה הַמְדִינָה, Chozeh HaMedinah lit. "Visionary of the State". Herzl is specifically mentioned in the Israeli Declaration of Independence and is officially referred to as "the spiritual father of the Jewish State", i.e. the visionary who gave a concrete, practicable platform and framework to political Zionism. However, he was not the first Zionist theoretician or activist; scholars, many of them religious such as rabbis Yehuda Bibas, Zvi Hirsch Kalischer and Judah Alkalai, promoted a range of proto-Zionist ideas before him.

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Theodor Herzl dies

<div>Atlanta Race Riot</div><img src="https://dashboard.atimeline.com/uploads/thumbnail_Le_Petit_Journal_Oct_7_1906_68976d37b8.jpeg"/>

The Atlanta Race Riot or Atlanta Riot of 1906 was the first race riot to take place in the capital city of Georgia. The riot lasted from September 22 to September 24 and was the culmination of a number of factors, including lingering tensions from reconstruction, job competition, black voting rights, and increasing desire of African Americans to secure their civil rights.

By 1900 the population of Atlanta had more than doubled to 89,872 from its 1880 level. The black population nearly quadrupled during that period. Job competition became intense and white politicians responded by implementing and expanding Jim Crow laws. The laws maintained separate black and white neighborhoods, segregated public transportation, and segregated schools. Despite these hurdles, a small number of black families achieved a significant measure of success. Black men voted during Reconstruction and continued to do so after their counterparts were pushed off the rolls throughout the rest of the South.  Consequently there was considerable African American political activism in the city. The growing black middle class made many white citizens uncomfortable but they were also wary of rising crime rates and the perceived threat of black men against white women.

The 1906 gubernatorial campaign added fuel to the racial fire, as both Democratic candidates, Hoke Smith and Clark Howell, advocated disenfranchisement of all black voters in their respective newspapers. On September 22, after four alleged sexual attacks on white women by black men were reported in the local white press, a mob of approximately 10,000 white men formed downtown. The mob surged through black Atlanta neighborhoods destroying businesses and assaulting hundreds of black men. The violence became so dangerous that the state militia was called in to take control of the city. Still, some white groups persisted in attacking black neighborhoods, and black men organized to defend their homes and families.

Prior to the 1906 riot, Atlanta was viewed as one of the few Southern American cities where blacks and whites could live in harmony. In an effort to end the violence, some white leaders reached out to the black elite, but in the aftermath of the violence the city became increasingly socially and racially stratified. Though not known for sure, the estimated number of blacks killed was between 25 and 40 while two white Americans were killed. Hundreds more people were injured or saw businesses and homes destroyed. Black residential neighborhoods became increasingly racially isolated following the riot, and many African Americans turned away from the previously popular accommodationist philosophies of Booker T. Washington in favor of more aggressive approaches to civil rights.

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Atlanta Race Riot

<div>Ford Model T introduced to the world</div><img src="https://dashboard.atimeline.com/uploads/thumbnail_1908_74cd551065.jpeg"/>

The Ford Model T is an automobile that was produced by Ford Motor Company from October 1, 1908, to May 26, 1927. It is generally regarded as the first affordable automobile, which made car travel available to middle-class Americans. The relatively low price was partly the result of Ford's efficient fabrication, including assembly line production instead of individual handcrafting.

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Ford Model T introduced to the world

<div>Young Turk Revolution</div><img src="https://dashboard.atimeline.com/uploads/thumbnail_1908_Revolution_in_Ottoman_Empire_public_domain_b00c0a223f.png"/>

The Young Turk Revolution (July 1908) was a constitutionalist revolution in the Ottoman Empire. The Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), an organization of the Young Turks movement, forced Sultan Abdul Hamid II to restore the Ottoman Constitution and recall the parliament, which ushered in multi-party politics within the Empire. From the Young Turk Revolution to the Empire's end marks the Second Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire's history. More than three decades earlier, in 1876, constitutional monarchy had been established under Abdul Hamid during a period of time known as the First Constitutional Era, which lasted for only two years before Abdul Hamid suspended it and restored autocratic powers to himself.

The revolution began with CUP member Ahmed Niyazi's flight into the Albanian highlands. He was soon joined by İsmail Enver and Eyub Sabri. They networked with local Albanians and utilized their connections within the Salonica based Third Army to instigate a large revolt. Various coordinated assassinations by Unionist Fedai also contributed to the Abdul Hamid's capitulation. With a Constitutionalist revolt in the Rumelian provinces instigated by the CUP, Abdul Hamid capitulated and announced the restoration of the Constitution, recalled the parliament, and called for elections.

After an attempted monarchist counterrevolution known as the 31 March Incident in favor of Abdul Hamid the following year, he was deposed and his brother Mehmed V ascended the throne.

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Young Turk Revolution

Grande Semaine d&#x27;Aviation de la Champagne

The Grand Semaine d'Aviation, held between 22 August and 29 August 1909, was sponsored by many of the leading makers of champagne including Moët et Chandon and Mumm and organised by a committee headed by the Marquis de Polignac. It was the first international public flying event and was seen both at the time and by later historians as marking the coming of age of heavier-than-air aviation. Almost all of the prominent aviators of the time took part, and the 500,000 visitors included Armand Fallières, the President of the French Republic and the British Chancellor of the Exchequer, David Lloyd George. It was held on the plain of Bétheny, about 5 km (3 mi) north of Reims, which later became the Reims – Champagne Air Base. A large grandstand was constructed for the event, together with a row of sheds to accommodate the aircraft. Next to the grandstand was the "Popular enclosure", complete with an enormous scoreboard. Amenities for the spectators included a restaurant that could seat 600 people, an area of specially laid lawn with bandstands and flowerbeds, and a post office, from which 50,000 postcards were sent each day and nearly a million words dispatched by press correspondents. The spectator area was only a few hundred meters from the Laon-Reims railway line, and a temporary station was provided.

A rectangular competition course of 10 km (6.2 mi), marked by four pylons was set up for the various competitions, with the strip intended for taking off and landing in front of the grandstands, opposite which was the timekeepers hut, provided with a signaling system to indicate to the spectators which event was being competed for. Flying conditions were primitive: the area over which much of the flying was to take place was farmland: some of the crops under cultivation had not been harvested and where this had been done there were haystacks: more than one flyer was to fall foul of these obstacles.

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Grande Semaine d'Aviation de la Champagne

The National Negro Conference met in New York City and founded the National  Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)

The Race Riot of 1908 in Springfield, Illinois, the state capital and President Abraham Lincoln's hometown, was a catalyst showing the urgent need for an effective civil rights organization in the U.S. In the decades around the turn of the century, the rate of lynchings of blacks, particularly men, was at an all-time high. Mary White Ovington, journalist William English Walling and Henry Moskowitz met in New York City in January 1909 to work on organizing for black civil rights. They sent out solicitations for support to more than 60 prominent Americans, and set a meeting date for February 12, 1909. This was intended to coincide with the 100th anniversary of the birth of President Abraham Lincoln, who emancipated enslaved African Americans. While the first large meeting did not occur until three months later, the February date is often cited as the organization's founding date.

The NAACP was founded on February 12, 1909, by a larger group including African Americans W. E. B. Du Bois, Ida B. Wells, Archibald Grimké, Mary Church Terrell, and the previously named whites Henry Moskowitz, Mary White Ovington, William English Walling (the wealthy Socialist son of a former slave-holding family), Florence Kelley, a social reformer and friend of Du Bois; Oswald Garrison Villard, and Charles Edward Russell, a renowned muckraker and close friend of Walling. Russell helped plan the NAACP and had served as acting chairman of the National Negro Committee (1909), a forerunner to the NAACP.

(Wikipedia 1 March 2022)

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On 11 July 1899, Giovanni Agnelli was part of the group of founding members of FIAT, Fabbrica Italiana di Automobili Torino. The first Fiat plant opened in 1900 with 35 staff making 24 cars. Known from the beginning for the talent and creativity of its engineering staff, by 1903 Fiat made a small profit and produced 135 cars; this grew to 1,149 cars by 1906. The company then went public selling shares via the Milan stock exchange.

Fiat "Tipo" was launched in 1910. The use of standardized components makes it possible to rationalize costs and production, creating a car that was both reliable and accessible to all.
These features made the Fiat Tipo so successful that, over the years, different versions of the car were produced, from 1 to 6, in order of their engine capacity.

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Launch of Fiat "Tipo"

<div>China declared a republic</div><img src="https://dashboard.atimeline.com/uploads/thumbnail_Chinese_republic_forever_8f515a2195.jpeg"/>

A republic was formally established on 1 January 1912 following the Xinhai Revolution, which itself began with the Wuchang uprising on 10 October 1911, successfully overthrowing the Qing dynasty and ending over two thousand years of imperial rule in China.[11] From its founding until 1949, the republic was based on mainland China. Central authority waxed and waned in response to warlordism (1915–28), a Japanese invasion (1937–45), and a full-scale civil war (1927–49), with central authority strongest during the Nanjing Decade (1927–37), when most of China came under the control of the authoritarian, one-party military dictatorship of the Kuomintang (KMT).[12]

In 1945, at the end of World War II, the Empire of Japan surrendered control of Taiwan and its island groups to the Allies; and Taiwan was placed under the Republic of China's administrative control. The communist takeover of mainland China in 1949, after the Chinese Civil War, left the ruling Kuomintang with control over only Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu, and other minor islands. With the loss of the mainland, the ROC government retreated to Taiwan and the KMT declared Taipei the provisional capital.[13] Meanwhile, the CCP took over all of mainland China[14][15] and founded the People's Republic of China (PRC) in Beijing.

In 1912, after over two thousand years of imperial rule, a republic was established to replace the monarchy.[11] The Qing dynasty that preceded the republic had experienced instability throughout the 19th century and suffered from both internal rebellion and foreign imperialism.[16] A program of institutional reform proved too little and too late. Only the lack of an alternative regime prolonged the monarchy's existence until 1912.[17][18]

The Chinese Republic grew out of the Wuchang Uprising against the Qing government, on 10 October 1911, which is now celebrated annually as the ROC's national day, also known as "Double Ten Day". Sun Yat-sen had been actively promoting revolution from his bases in exile. He now returned and on 29 December 1911, Sun Yat-sen was elected president by the Nanjing assembly, which consisted of representatives from seventeen provinces. On 1 January 1912, he was officially inaugurated and pledged "to overthrow the despotic government led by the Manchu, consolidate the Republic of China and plan for the welfare of the people".[19] Sun's new government lacked military strength. As a compromise, he negotiated with Yuan Shikai the commander of the Beiyang Army, promising Yuan the presidency of the republic if he were to remove the Qing emperor by force. Yuan agreed to the deal, and the last emperor of the Qing Dynasty, Puyi, was forced to abdicate in 1912. Song Jiaoren led the Kuomintang Party to electoral victories by fashioning his party's program to appeal to the gentry, landowners, and merchants. Song was assassinated on 20 March 1913, at the behest of Yuan Shikai.

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China declared a republic

<div>Universal Negro Improvement Association</div><img src="https://dashboard.atimeline.com/uploads/thumbnail_Marcus_Garvey_1924_08_05_4f1d11636f.jpg"/>

Marcus Garvey established the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) in Jamaica, which promoted black nationalism and pan-Africanism.

The Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL) is a black nationalist fraternal organization founded by Marcus Garvey, a Jamaican immigrant to the United States, and Amy Ashwood Garvey. The Pan-African organization enjoyed its greatest strength in the 1920s, and was influential prior to Garvey's deportation to Jamaica in 1927. After that its prestige and influence declined, but it had a strong influence on African-American history and development. The UNIA was said to be "unquestionably, the most influential anticolonial organization in Jamaica prior to 1938." (Honor Ford-Smith)

The organization was founded to work for the advancement of people of African ancestry around the world. Its motto is "One God! One Aim! One Destiny!" and its slogan is "Africa for the Africans, at home and abroad!" The broad mission of the UNIA-ACL led to the establishment of numerous auxiliary components, among them the African Legion (a paramilitary group), the African Black Cross Nurses, plus businesses such as the Black Star Steamship Line and the Negro Factories Corporation.


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Universal Negro Improvement Association

The St. Petersburg-Tampa Airboat Line operated the first scheduled airline flight, a 23-minute hop across Tampa Bay that covered 18.6 miles.

The first customer was the former mayor of St. Petersburg, Abram Pheil, who paid $400 at auction for the ticket. He wore a raincoat. 

Tony Jannus piloted an airboat built by Thomas Benoist, flying just 15 feet above the water, according to an account by the Florida Aviation Historical Society.  